* Assess Marxist views on representations in the media.
OCR
A Level
2021
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Introduction
This essay will assess Marxist views on representations in the media, exploring how they argue that the media serves as a tool of the ruling class to maintain their dominance and control over society. It will also consider critiques of this perspective, including from neo-Marxist, pluralist and feminist perspectives, to provide a balanced and nuanced analysis of the subject.
Marxist Views on Media Representations
The Media as Part of the Superstructure
Marxists argue that the media is part of the superstructure of society, which is shaped by and serves the interests of the economic base (the mode of production). The base, in capitalist societies, is dominated by the ruling class who own and control the means of production. The media, therefore, acts as a tool for transmitting ideology and creating false consciousness among the working class.
The Media and False Consciousness
Marxists believe that the media is used to perpetuate the myth of meritocracy, portraying success as a result of individual effort rather than social structures. This masks the reality of social inequalities and reinforces the existing power structures. By focusing on individual stories of success, the media distracts from the systemic issues that prevent social mobility for the majority.
Examples of Media Power
Examples of the power of media owners like Rupert Murdoch illustrate the Marxist argument. Murdoch’s media empire has been accused of using its influence to promote right-wing ideologies and influence public opinion. This demonstrates the potential for media ownership to be used to manipulate the masses.
Evaluation of Marxist Views
Ignores Other Forms of Inequality
A key criticism of the Marxist perspective is that it solely focuses on class inequality and ignores other forms of social stratification, such as gender, race, and sexuality. This limits its ability to fully understand the complex interplay of power dynamics in media representations.
Overly Conspiratorial
The Marxist view can be viewed as overly conspiratorial, suggesting a deliberate and coordinated effort by the ruling class to control the media. This neglects the agency of media professionals and the complexities of the media industry, which are often influenced by a multitude of factors.
Neo-Marxist Perspective
Neo-Marxist perspectives acknowledge the agency of media professionals, suggesting that they often come from privileged backgrounds and reinforce the ruling class hegemony through their reporting. This view critiques the lack of diversity in the media industry and its impact on representation.
Pluralist Viewpoint
Pluralist perspectives argue that the media landscape is diverse, with a range of viewpoints and voices represented. They emphasize the increasing accessibility of media production and the rise of alternative media platforms, challenging the notion of a monolithic media controlled by the ruling class.
The Fourth Estate
Some argue that the media plays a crucial role as the "fourth estate," acting as a watchdog on government and holding power to account. This view suggests that the media can be a force for positive change and challenge the status quo, contradicting the Marxist view of it as a tool of oppression.
Conclusion
While Marxist perspectives offer valuable insights into the role of media in perpetuating inequality and social control, they are not without their limitations. The complex nature of the media landscape, influenced by various factors, requires a more nuanced analysis that considers other perspectives, including those of neo-Marxism, pluralism, and feminism. By acknowledging the agency of media professionals and recognizing the diversity of media platforms, we can move beyond simplistic, conspiratorial views and develop a more comprehensive understanding of media representations.
Assess Marxist views on representations in the media.
Marxist theory, originating from the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, offers a critical perspective on the role of media in capitalist societies. Marxists view the media as part of the ‘superstructure’ which functions to maintain the power of the ruling class (or bourgeoisie). This essay will assess the Marxist view that the media presents a distorted view of society which serves to benefit the wealthy and powerful, and will evaluate this by considering alternative perspectives.
Marxists argue that the media, as part of the superstructure, plays a key role in transmitting ruling class ideology. They argue that media owners, who are predominantly wealthy and powerful individuals like Rupert Murdoch, have a vested interest in maintaining the capitalist system from which they benefit. According to this view, media owners use their platforms to promote ideas and beliefs that support the status quo. This can be seen in the way that media outlets often portray the wealthy and powerful in a positive light, while demonising or marginalising the voices of the working class. For example, news coverage of strikes often focuses on the inconvenience caused to the public, rather than the legitimate grievances of the workers.
Furthermore, Marxists argue that the media promotes consumerism and a focus on material possessions, which helps to keep the working class preoccupied with trivial matters and distracted from the real issues facing them. This idea resonates with Miliband's concept of the media as the "new opium of the people." By constantly bombarding audiences with advertising and promoting a lifestyle that is unattainable for many, the media encourages a sense of inadequacy and dissatisfaction that can only be temporarily alleviated through consumption. This focus on consumerism serves to perpetuate the capitalist system by keeping people locked into a cycle of work and spend.
However, the Marxist perspective on media representations has been criticised for being overly deterministic. Critics argue that it assumes that audiences are passive recipients of media messages, and fails to account for the possibility of individual agency and interpretation. This view, often associated with pluralist perspectives, suggests that audiences are not simply 'cultural dopes', blindly accepting everything they see and hear. Instead, they argue that people are capable of critically evaluating media messages and forming their own opinions.
Additionally, the rise of new media technologies and the internet has led to a diversification of media ownership and an increase in independent and citizen journalism. This has arguably made it more difficult for a small elite to control the flow of information and has created more opportunities for alternative voices to be heard. If, as Marxists claim, media owners have absolute power over representations, it is difficult to explain the significant rise in popularity of media output which is critical of capitalism, such as the documentaries of Michael Moore or the fictional work of Ken Loach.
Neo-Marxists offer an alternative perspective, acknowledging the role of media professionals in shaping media content. They highlight that journalists and broadcasters, whilst not necessarily the owners of media outlets, often come from privileged backgrounds themselves. This can lead to a reinforcement of ruling class hegemony, even if it is not a deliberate attempt by owners to control the narrative. The dominance of white, middle class males in journalistic and broadcasting roles could be seen to support this idea.
In conclusion, whilst the Marxist perspective offers a valuable critique of the role of the media in capitalist societies, it is important to acknowledge the limitations of this perspective. Whilst ownership of media outlets and the importance of ideology are significant factors in shaping representations, the Marxist perspective can be seen as overly deterministic in its assessment of audience reception, particularly in light of new media technologies. Ultimately, a comprehensive understanding of media representations requires a nuanced approach that takes into account a range of perspectives.
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Neo-Marxist Views on Media
Neo-Marxist views may be used as either knowledge or evaluation and analysis depending on how the candidate has answered. Either way is creditable.
Possible Knowledge Points
The following list is indicative of possible factors/evidence that candidates may refer to but is not prescriptive or exhaustive:
- Media as part of the superstructure of society transmitting ideology to create false class consciousness
- Miliband – New opium of the people
- Power with the owners of the media (Bagdikian)
- Using representation to continue myth of meritocracy
- Examples of power e.g. Rupert Murdoch
- Any other relevant response
The selected knowledge should be directly related to the specific question.
Possible Evaluation Points
The following list is indicative of possible factors/evidence that candidates may refer to in evaluation but is not prescriptive or exhaustive:
- Ignores other forms of inequality
- Overly conspiratorial
- Fails to take into account role of media professionals
- Neo- Marxist view that Journalists and broadcasters tend to be white, middle class and male and reinforce the ruling class hegemony.
- Pluralist viewpoint that there is now a wide range of choice
- The Fourth Estate – keeps society in check
- Feminist – various representations of women not reflected by Marxist position
- Postmodern position that it is difficult to identify specific social groups as boundaries become blurred
- Any other relevant response
Assessment Criteria
Knowledge and Understanding
- Excellent: The candidate demonstrates an excellent knowledge and understanding of a range of sociological material; which is well developed and substantiated. There is a well-developed line of reasoning which is clear and logically structured.
- Good: The candidate demonstrates a good knowledge and understanding of either a range of sociological material or some material in detail. The material is generally accurate but underdeveloped. There is a line of reasoning presented with some structure. The information presented is in the most-part relevant and supported by some evidence.
- Basic: The candidate demonstrates a basic knowledge and understanding of some sociological material. The response lacks range and detail. The response may lack clarity at times and contain some inaccuracies / confusion. The response may be partial and undeveloped and / or generalised. The information has some relevance and is presented with basic structure. The information is supported by limited evidence.
- Limited: The candidate demonstrates a limited knowledge and understanding of sociological material. Very little relevant sociological material is presented; the response contains considerable inaccuracy and lacks clarity. The information is basic and communicated in an unstructured way. The information is supported by limited evidence and the relationship to the evidence may not be clear.
- No Relevant Knowledge: No relevant sociological knowledge or understanding.
Application
- Excellent: The candidate demonstrates an excellent ability to apply relevant sociological material. The material is consistently and frequently related to the question.
- Good: The candidate demonstrates a good ability to apply sociological material. The material is generally relevant but is explicitly related to the question only occasionally.
- Basic: The candidate demonstrates a basic ability to apply sociological material. The material is related to the question mainly implicitly and lacks focus on the question. The response may be generalised.
- Limited: The candidate demonstrates a limited ability to apply sociological material. The material is tangential to the question and of marginal relevance.
- No Relevant Application: No relevant application.
Analysis and Evaluation
- Excellent: The candidate demonstrates an excellent ability to analyse and evaluate sociological material. There will be at least one developed evaluation point, supported with sociological evidence. The candidate may reach a critical and reasoned conclusion.
- Good: The candidate demonstrates a good ability to analyse and evaluate sociological material. There is some analysis and evaluation points but these may be underdeveloped. There may be a tendency towards juxtaposition of other theories without specific links made to the question. The candidate may reach a critical but brief conclusion.
- Basic: The candidate demonstrates a basic ability to analyse and evaluate. Evaluation points are likely to be anecdotal, unsubstantiated and/or undeveloped or completely through juxtaposition. The evaluation may lack clarity and contain some inaccuracies / confusion. If present, the conclusion is likely to be summative.
- Limited: The candidate demonstrates a limited ability to analyse and evaluate. Only implicit or tangential analysis or evaluation is present. There is unlikely to be a conclusion.
- No Relevant Analysis or Evaluation: No relevant analysis or evaluation.