Analyse the impact that the rivalries between the Cold War superpowers had on the civil war in Angola.
Level
A Level
Year Examined
2021
Topic
International history, 1945–92
👑Complete Model Essay
Analyse the impact that the rivalries between the Cold War superpowers had on the civil war in Angola.
The Angolan Civil War: A Cold War Battleground
The Angolan Civil War, a brutal and protracted conflict lasting from 1975 to 2002, became tragically intertwined with the geopolitical machinations of the Cold War. While internal divisions and the struggle for power among Angolan factions were the primary catalysts for the war, the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union significantly exacerbated the conflict, transforming Angola into a proxy battleground.
The roots of the civil war can be traced back to the struggle for independence from Portuguese colonial rule. Three main liberation movements emerged: the Marxist MPLA, the FNLA based in the north, and UNITA led by Jonas Savimbi. The Alvor Agreement, signed in January 1975, attempted to establish a power-sharing government, but this quickly unraveled as each group vied for sole control. When the MPLA declared independence on November 11, 1975, civil war erupted, with UNITA launching an offensive against the MPLA.
Angola’s strategic importance, coupled with its vast agricultural and mineral resources, made it a prime target for Cold War manipulation. The United States, under the Ford administration, perceived the MPLA's Marxist leanings as a threat and threw their support behind the FNLA and UNITA. The CIA funneled weapons and training to these groups, with the first major shipment to the FNLA occurring in July 1975. Zaire and China also provided assistance to the FNLA. On the other side of the ideological divide, the Soviet Union backed the MPLA, providing military training and equipment. Cuba, a close Soviet ally, also deployed troops to support the MPLA, much to the ire of the United States.
The US government, however, faced internal opposition to its interventionist policies in Angola. Some members of Congress, wary of another costly entanglement after the Vietnam War, rejected Ford's request for additional funding in 1976. While the US encouraged South Africa's intervention on the side of UNITA, it sought to distance itself from the apartheid regime on the international stage. With the withdrawal of South African forces in 1976, the MPLA, bolstered by Soviet and Cuban support, solidified its control and became the internationally recognized government of Angola.
The US government, particularly under the leadership of Henry Kissinger, justified its intervention in Angola by claiming that it was a necessary response to Soviet aggression. Kissinger argued that the Soviet Union's support for the MPLA, through Cuban troops, forced the US to act. However, declassified documents and historical analysis later revealed that the Soviet Union was initially hesitant to get involved in Angola. It was, in fact, the United States that first backed a two-pronged invasion by the FNLA from Zaire and South Africa in support of UNITA. This revelation challenged the prevailing narrative of the Angolan Civil War as a classic case of Soviet expansionism, highlighting the role of US actions in escalating the conflict.
Despite the MPLA’s victory in 1976, UNITA, under Jonas Savimbi, continued to wage a guerrilla war with support from the United States and South Africa. The Reagan administration, staunchly anti-communist, secured the repeal of the Clark Amendment in 1985, paving the way for renewed US military aid to UNITA. Despite a negotiated peace agreement and UN-supervised elections in 1992, Savimbi refused to accept defeat and plunged Angola back into civil war. The conflict finally came to an end in 2002 with the death of Savimbi, but not before claiming the lives of an estimated 500,000 people and displacing millions more.
In conclusion, while the Angolan Civil War was fundamentally rooted in internal divisions and the power struggles of Angolan liberation movements, the Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union significantly intensified and prolonged the conflict. Both superpowers, driven by ideological imperatives and a desire for global influence, armed and supported their respective proxies, turning Angola into a tragic Cold War battleground. This external intervention had a devastating impact on Angola, hindering its development and leaving a legacy of instability and suffering.
Bibliography
⭐Gleijeses, Piero. _Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959-1976_. The University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
⭐Kalley, Jacqueline A. _Southern African Political History: A Chronology of Key Political Events from Independence to Mid-1997_. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999.
⭐Westad, Odd Arne. _The Global Cold War: Third World Interventions and the Making of Our Times_. Cambridge University Press, 2017.
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Introduction
This essay will analyse the impact that the rivalries between the Cold War superpowers had on the civil war in Angola. The essay will argue that the superpowers' involvement in the conflict significantly escalated and prolonged the war. While the civil war was primarily driven by internal factors, such as the competing desires of the three main groups for control of the country, the Cold War rivalry provided a crucial context and set of incentives that amplified the conflict.
The Roots of the Conflict: Angolan Independence and the Alvor Agreement
Discuss the three main military movements fighting for Angolan independence, emphasizing their different ideologies and goals.
Explain the Alvor Agreement, its aim, and why it ultimately failed to prevent the outbreak of civil war.
Explain that the outbreak of civil war coincided with Portugal's withdrawal, creating a vacuum that the superpowers exploited.
Superpower Intervention and the Escalation of the Civil War
Explain how Angola became a Cold War battleground, highlighting the strategic importance of the country and the resources it possessed.
Detail the support provided by the United States (to FNLA and UNITA) and the Soviet Union (to MPLA), demonstrating how the superpowers' involvement transformed the conflict.
Analyse the role of the Soviet Union and Cuba in the conflict, as well as the intervention of South Africa.
Highlight the US's contradictory approach, seeking to support anti-communist forces but also seeking to distance itself from the apartheid regime.
The Impact of Superpower Rivalry: Prolonging the Conflict and Hindering Peace
Explain how superpower support, both materially and ideologically, prolonged the civil war.
Discuss the impact of the superpowers' involvement on the dynamics of the conflict, arguing that it made reaching a negotiated solution more difficult.
Analyse the role of the United States' policy towards Angola, arguing that it unintentionally prolonged the conflict.
Discuss the impact of the Reagan administration's increased support for UNITA.
Explain the failed elections of 1992 and their consequences.
Conclusion
Conclude by reiterating the argument that the Cold War rivalry significantly impacted the Angolan Civil War.
Emphasize the role of superpower intervention in escalating and prolonging the conflict, making it more difficult to achieve a peaceful resolution.
Discuss the long-term consequences of the Cold War rivalry on Angola.
Extracts from Mark Schemes
The Impact of Cold War Rivalries on the Angolan Civil War
Rivalries between the Cold War superpowers transformed the Angolan civil war into a proxy battleground. The United States and the Soviet Union, along with their allies, provided support to opposing factions, inevitably escalating and prolonging the conflict. Despite this, the military groups themselves were unable to reach an agreement on power-sharing, ultimately hindering a peaceful resolution.
Three main military movements, the MPLA (a Marxist organization), the FNLA (based in the north), and UNITA led by Jonas Savimbi, were vying for Angolan independence since the 1960s. The Alvor Agreement with Portugal in January 1975 aimed for a three-way power-sharing government. However, each group sought sole power, leading to the outbreak of civil war. UNITA declared war on the MPLA on August 1, 1975. When MPLA leader Neto declared November 11, 1975, as Angolan independence day, Portugal withdrew its troops.
Angola swiftly became a Cold War battleground as the superpowers provided military assistance to their favored groups. Both the United States and the Soviet Union sought influence in Angola, a country rich in agricultural and mineral resources. This resulted in a Cold War contest by proxy, with the superpowers and their allies giving military aid to the factions they supported. The United States provided aid and training to both FNLA and UNITA, with the CIA sending its first major weapons shipment to the FNLA in July 1975. Zaire and China also assisted FNLA. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, supported the MPLA with military training and equipment. The MPLA also had ties with Cuba under Castro, while UNITA sought military assistance from South Africa, which aimed to prevent Angola from becoming a base for Namibian independence rebels.
The US Government encouraged South African intervention, but sought to distance itself from the apartheid regime. Some members of the US Congress opposed intervention, and Ford's request for additional funds was rejected in 1976. South Africa withdrew its forces in the spring of 1976, leaving the MPLA as the official Angolan government. However, UNITA continued the civil war, which lingered intermittently until 2002.
Henry Kissinger argued that the United States was forced to intervene in Angola due to the Soviet Union already providing military aid to the MPLA through Cuban troops. However, later evidence indicated that the Kremlin was hesitant to become deeply involved and that it was the United States that backed a two-pronged invasion by FNLA from Zaire and South Africa in support of UNITA. At the time of the crisis, the United States and the Soviet Union were still pursuing détente. The Ford Administration believed that Cuba's intervention in Angola was a proxy for the Soviet Union, thereby breaking détente rules, but this was later proven false. While the MPLA was the most organized and well-led faction, the United States refused a negotiated settlement as the Soviet Union supported the MPLA.
In August 1985, the Reagan administration repealed the 1976 prohibition against US military aid to rebel forces in Angola. Military assistance to UNITA began in January 1987. Elections were finally held in September 1992, but when the MPLA appeared to be the winner, Savimbi rejected the results, and the civil war resumed. Washington finally recognized the Angolan government in May 1993.